The History of Computer

The invention of computer comes from the need for efficient and accurate counting.

Abacus

Historically, the first invention of computer comes from china. They invented an calculator device called Abacus or Cipoa used in 1200 AD consisted of a rectangular frame that could be held by hand. In the frame are several fixed rods strung with moveable beads.

picture 1: Abacus 

 There are several beads on each rod, two side of crossbar and five on the other. The bead on the rod at the right represents units, the next rods to the left represent tens, then hundreds and so on. Each bead above the crossbar represents five times the value of bead below it. Numbers are recorded by movingbeads to the crossbar.

Pascal`s calculator

Blaise Pascal born in 1623 was a French Philosopher, scientist and mathematician. He invented the first calculating machine, using pinwheel gearing and numbered disks for addition and subtraction.

 

Picture 2: Pascal`s calculator

His invention was motivated by drudgery of adding long column of numbers in his father`s tax office in Rouen. This design was a basis for most machine calculators built over the next 300 years. The pinwheel registered decimal values by cog to represent each decimal digits, included on the wheel was carry lever to cause the next higher digit to register on overflow. Reversing the rotation would allow the machine to subtract. The automotive odometer continuous to work on this principle.

Leibnitz`s calculator

After 50 years, Leibnitz (1646-1716) has modified Pascal`s calculator, the application was upgraded with division and multiplication. The Leibnitz`s calculator was completed by the Otto Hahn Germany scientist in 1773.

Picture 3: Leibnitz`s Machine

Babbage`s Difference Engine (1823)

Charles P. Babbage was born in 1792 in Devonshire, England. Another mathematician, Babbage convinced of a machine that could go beyond addition and subtraction. When working with logarithmic tables that contained an excessive numbers of errors, he built the Difference Engine to produce the tables mechanically with an accuracy of 20 digits. The first model that Babbage built had 96 computing wheels mounted on 24 shafts. Unfortunately the precision needed in its components made wide-scale production impossible.

Picture 4: Babbage`s Difference Engine

Babbage designed the Analytical Engine 1833. Although this machine was mechanical, it had all the features of a modern computer, memory, control, arithmetic unit, and input and output capabilities. A unique feature for its time was the ability for the machine to be programmed with punched card.

The first cash register (1878)

In the 1978 James Ritty, an American invented the first cash register. The first model had two rods of keys and large clocklike dial containing two rows of figures showing dollars and cents. Ritty found that the machines sold poorly and he sold the business to Jacob H. Eckert who organized the National Cash Register Company.

NCR is still in cash register business and is one of the leading computer, business machine, and terminal manufacture in North America.

The Hollerith Card (1896)

Herman Hollerith is widely recognized as the person who invented the punched card. Although he adopted Jacquard`s original idea, the modern punched card closely resembles Hollerith`s invention.

In 1879 Hollerith was employed by the U.S Census Bureau. He started to work on a machine that used electrical contacts for sensing punched holes for the purpose of tabulating population statistics.

His first card was 16.8 centimeter by 8.25 centimeters and 24 columns each containing 12 punching positions. The standard IBM card used since 1950s is 19.68 centimeters by 8.25 centimeter with the columns of 12 punching positions.

In 1896 Hollerith formed the Tabulating Machine Company and began to sell equipment to railroads and insurance companies. In 1911 Hollerith merged with the International Time Recording company, the Dayton Scale Company and Bundry Manufacturing to form the computing Tabulating Recording Company (CTR). In 1924 CTR was renamed International Business Machines (IBM) it has become the largest computer company.

Early Computer of the Twentieth Century

MARK 1 (1937)

In the 1037 Howard Aiken, a professor of applied mathematicians at Harvard, was working on a digital computers that could be used to solve mathematical and other problems. He received financial backing from Thomas J. Watson who was then president of IBM. By 1944 the Mark 1 or Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator was built. The  ASCC used many of Babbage`s ideas.

The Mark I was gigantic 15.5 meters (51 feet) long and 2.4 meters (8 feet) high, containing more than 760,00 parts. It used 23 digit numbers and 60 register for constants and 72 storage registers. Input was in the multiplying two number took the Mark 1 about 3 second. (Desktop microcomputers are considerably smaller, operate at such faster speeds and have greater storage capacity).

But the Mark I was not adequate for all the application that Aiken had in mind for it. In 1947 the Mark II was unveiled. It was, 3 times the size the size of Mark I and 12 times the speed. Both machines were electromechanically, consisting of wiring, switches, relays and panels.

ENIAC (1942)

ENIAC is an acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and computer. It was develop at the Moore School of the University of Pennsylvania by professors John W. Mauchly and T. Presper Eckert. The ENIAC computer was the first to use vacuum tubes in its circuitry, which contributed to a large increase in speed over earlier computers like the Mark I. addition of the two numbers required 0.2 milliseconds. Multiplication used only 2.8 milliseconds of computer time. Pit that against your favorite abacus. But hardly carry by hand because the entire computer consists of 30 separate units, weighing over 30 tons. It contained 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70, 000 resistors and 10, 000 capacitors. It also used to calculate the trajectories for firing tables. A 60 seconds trajectory that normally took 20 hours of manual calculations could be done by ENIAC in 30 seconds.

EDVAC (1950)

The Moore School on Pennsylvania went beyond the ENIAC to build the EDVAC or Electronic Discrete Variable Automotive Computer. The EDVAC used 5,900 vacuum tubes and established a new trend in computer technology by using 12,000 diodes, the first solid-states devices to be used in a computer. Using this technology EDVAC could add two numbers in 864 microseconds (millionths of a second).

 Another major development with EDVAC was the use of the stored program. This concept was contributed by John von Neumann an early computer pioneer. This innovation idea made changing programs a simple task and turned into truly general purpose machine.

Unit Record Machines (1950-1970)

Although computers were developing in one developing in one direction in the 1950`s they were still considered too expensive for the average business. A parallel development was the unit record system. These machines were based on operations with cards, such as sorting, merging, calculating and printing. Unit record was traditional method of introduction method of introducing data processing to a company in the 1950`s. the success of these machines is evident from their continued use through several generation of computers into the 1970`s.

Second Generation Computers (1960 to 1965)

A breakthrough in computer technology came when John Barder, Wiliam Shockley and Walter Bratten at Bell Telephone Laboratories invented a solid-state device called the transistor. This development occurred in 1948, it did not impact in the computer industry until the 1960s.

The transistor was many times smaller than the vacuum tube: it consumed less power, generated less heat and had improved reliability. The use of transistors resulted in physically smaller computers that operated In the microsecond range. The increased speed was primarily due to the use of transistors but was also influenced by the use of magnetic core for main storage. The introduction of the core allowed storage of larger capacity; this greatest capacity in turn permitted the use of more input and output devices.

Second generation computers began to multiply like to proverbial rabbit as many companies came into the market. Some of these were the IBM 1400 and 7000 series computers, the Burroughs b5000, UNIVAC III, NCR 304, and the control Data Corporation 1604 computer.

Programmers began to rely more on symbolic languages to replace machine language. Some compliers began to appear on the scene for high level languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN. Programmers were also relieved of many programming tasks such as input and output control, which was now handled by a monitor program or operating program.

Third Generation Computers (1965 to 1975)

The Integrated Circuit (IC) was solid logic technology which smaller, faster, less power hungry and cooler operating than the transistor. Anew speed called the nanosecond was born. Main storage technology also under changes as plated wire, thin film, monolithic storage and integrated circuits began replacing core. All these hardware developments prompted change in the software and the new computer began to show new potential. Multiprogramming was born; it allowing several programs to run simultaneously on one computer. Online system with remote terminals became popular so that user could access the computer to the remote location over telephone lines. Programming languages also improved, in some cases becoming simpler for casual programmer.

Until recent years the third generation was considered a revolution in the design and application of computer technology. In their own right this is probably true of third generation computers like the IBM 360 series which started the third generation. Other computer that soon followed were the Burroughs 6500, 7500, 8500 computers; UNIVAC 9000 series and NCR Century series.

Fourth Generation computers (1975 to present)

The move to the fourth generation was not clear as previous generations of computers. However, these systems were again characterized by further miniaturization and refinement of the semiconductor technology. One of the first was IBM system/370. Computers of the fourth generations used large-scale integration (LSI) and very large scale integrated (VSLI) circuits. Where transistors circuits used one transistor per logic component, VLSI could pack tens off thousands of circuits’ into the same compact space. The evolutionary process is continuing and new generation use characterized it by using micro electric technology which was permitted computer manufactures to place into hardware what was formerly the program code in the software. Software developments have allowed the use of concepts such as virtual storage. Virtual storage expands main storage capacity to million of characters by utilizing a disk driver as an extension of a main storage.